Lead and Cadmium Pollution: Implications for Health in Artisanal and Small Scale Gold Mining in Senegal and Kenya
##article.subject##:
Lead, Cadmium, ASGM, Health risk, Kenya and Senegal
##article.abstract##
Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) is a prevalent activity, characterized by low-tech equipment and inadequate Occupational Health and Safety Standards (OHS). The ASGM is a significant source of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs), which can result in potential health risks to humans and the ecosystem. The interconnectedness between human and environmental health have gained global attention from scientific communities, public health and planetary health regarding human-environmental continuum’s safety. This study aimed at assessing human and environmental health risks associated with mine pollution in Kedougou region of South Eastern Senegal and Kakamega region in Western Kenya. Purposive sampling was used to collect waste ores, agricultural soil, residential soils and surface water samples were taken from Kedougou region while secondary data on similar matrices were used from Kakamega region. Descriptive statistics, figures and tables were used to present the result. Health risks assessment were achieved using Enrichment Factors (EF), Index of Geo-accumulation (Igeo), Pollution Index (HPI), and Ecological Risk Assessment Indices (ERI); to ascertain the source and the burden of health risk as a result of contamination in the two regions. Distinct geological and mineralogical compositions contributed significantly to the difference in concentrations of these Pb and Cd across Eastern and Western Africa regions. Further, geographic variation in background concentrations contributed significantly to the natural Pb and Cd levels in environmental media between the different locales. This research concluded that ASGM is one of the contributors to human and ecosystem health risks associated with Pb and Cd pollution. There is urgent need for comprehensive Occupational Health and Safety Standards; implementation and training of miners to safeguard human health while maintaining the livelihood in ASGM operations as well as proper control of mine waste disposal and conservation measures around the ASGM areas.
References
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Persaud, A.W., et al., Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Senegal: Livelihoods, Customary Authority, and Formalization. Society & Natural Resources, 2017. 30(8): p. 980-993.
Ajith, M.M. and A.K. Ghosh, Economic and social challenges faced by injured artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Kenya. Safety Science, 2019. 118: p. 841-852.
Mitchell, C., B. Palumbo-Roe, and T. Bide, Artisanal & small-scale gold mining research field work, Migori County, Kenya. 2020.
Olujimi, O.O., et al., Heavy metals speciation and human health risk assessment at an illegal gold mining site in Igun, Osun State, Nigeria. Journal of Health Pollution, 2015. 5(8): p. 19-32.
Rakete, S., et al., Biomonitoring of arsenic, cadmium and lead in two artisanal and small-scale gold mining areas in Zimbabwe. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2022. 29(3): p. 4762-4768.
Thiombane, M., et al., A new hazard assessment workflow to assess soil contamination from large and artisanal scale gold mining. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2023.
Ako, O.U.S., Oke S. A., Adamu I. A., Ali S. E., Mamodu A., Ibrahim A. T., Environmental Impact of Artisanal Gold Mining in Luku, Minna, Niger State, North Central Nigeria. Journal of Geosciences and Geomatics, 2014. Vol. 2, No. 1.
Ogola, J.S., W.V. Mitullah, and M.A. Omulo, Impact of Gold Mining on the Environment and Human Health: A Case Study in the Migori Gold Belt, Kenya. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2002. 24(2): p. 141-157.
Kaninga, et al., mine tailings in an African tropical environment—mechanisms for the bioavailability of heavy metals in soils. Environmental geochemistry and health, 2020. 42: p. 1069-1094.
Okereafor, U., et al., Toxic Metal Implications on Agricultural Soils, Plants, Animals, Aquatic life and Human Health. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020. 17(7).
Mehta, N., et al., Incorporating oral bioaccessibility into human health risk assessment due to potentially toxic elements in extractive waste and contaminated soils from an abandoned mine site. Chemosphere, 2020. 255: p. 126927.
Kinimo, K.C., et al., Distribution trends and ecological risks of arsenic and trace metals in wetland sediments around gold mining activities in central-southern and southeastern Côte d'Ivoire. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2018. 190: p. 265-280.
Cuya, A., et al., Socio-environmental perceptions and barriers to conservation engagement among artisanal small-scale gold mining communities in Southeastern Peru. Global ecology and conservation, 2021. 31: p. e01816.
Seccatore, J., et al., An estimation of the artisanal small-scale production of gold in the world. Sci Total Environ, 2014. 496: p. 662-667.
Chemicals, Summary of supply, trade and demand information on mercury. Report prepared by Concorde East/West Sprl in response to UNEP Governing Council decision, 2006. 23(9).
Wawire, R.N., Artisanal Gold Mining and Its Implications on Adjacent Land Uses: a Case of Rosterman and Ikolomani Sites, Kakamega County, Kenya. 2023, University of Nairobi.
Ngom, N.M., et al., Mapping Artisanal and Small‐Scale Gold Mining in Senegal Using Sentinel 2 Data. GeoHealth, 2020. 4(12).
Niane, et al., Effect of recent artisanal small-scale gold mining on the contamination of surface river sediment: Case of Gambia River, Kedougou region, southeastern Senegal. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2014. 144: p. 517-527.
Zoch, G.L., Examining the Effects of Artisanal, Small-scale Gold Mining on Livelihood Assets in Kedougou, Senegal. 2019.
Ondayo, M.A., et al., Artisanal gold mining in Kakamega and Vihiga counties, Kenya: potential human exposure and health risk. Environ Geochem Health, 2023.
Igbayiloye, O.B. and D. Bradlow, An assessment of the regulatory legal and institutional framework of the mining industry in South Africa and Kenya for effective human rights protection: Lessons for other countries. African Human Rights Law Journal, 2021. 21(1): p. 363-388.
Laporte, B., C. De Quatrebarbes, and Y. Bouterige, Mining taxation in Africa: The gold mining industry in 14 countries from 1980 to 2015. 2017.
Landrigan, P.J., et al., The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The lancet, 2018. 391(10119): p. 462-512.
Myers, S.S., Planetary health: protecting human health on a rapidly changing planet. The Lancet, 2017. 390(10114): p. 2860-2868.
Tech, E.T., Determination of some heavy metals in wastewater and sediment of artisanal gold local mining site of Abare Area in Nigeria. J. Environ. Treat. Tech, 2013. 1(3): p. 174-182.
Plumlee, G.S. and S.A. Morman, Mine Wastes and Human Health. Elements, 2011. 7(6): p. 399-404.
Godwill Azeh Engwa, P.U.F., Friday Nweke Nwalo and a.M.N. Unachukwu, Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans. Intech Open, 2019.
Roca-Perez, L., et al., Potentially harmful elements pollute soil and vegetation around the Atrevida mine (Tarragona, NE Spain). Environ Geochem Health, 2023.
Mungai, et al., Occurrences and toxicological risk assessment of eight heavy metals in agricultural soils from Kenya, Eastern Africa. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2016. 23(18): p. 18533-41.
Ara, A. and J.A. Usmani, Lead toxicity: a review. Interdisciplinary toxicology, 2015. 8(2): p. 55-64.
Lu, N., Investigation of Lead and Cadmium Contamination in Mine Soil and Metal Accumulation in Selected Plants Growing in a Gold Mining Area. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 2019. 17(5).
Gidlow and David, Lead toxicity. Occupational medicine, 2015. 65(5): p. 348-356.
Geng, N., et al., Bioaccumulation of potentially toxic elements by submerged plants and biofilms: a critical review. Environment international, 2019. 131: p. 105015.
Li, et al., In vitro lung and gastrointestinal bioaccessibility of potentially toxic metals in Pb-contaminated alkaline urban soil: The role of particle size fractions. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2020. 190: p. 110151.
Whitmee, S., et al., Safeguarding human health in the Anthropocene epoch: report of The Rockefeller Foundation–Lancet Commission on planetary health. The lancet, 2015. 386(10007): p. 1973-2028.
Adegbe Mamodu, I.T.O., Simon Samchi Apollos, OrjiChukwuma N. Jacinta1, Waziri H. Salome, Abubakar Abduljalilu Enesi, Analyzing the environmental impacts and potential health challenges resulting from artisanal gold mining in Shango area ofMinna, NorthCentral, Nigeria. JOURNAL OF DEGRADED ANDMINING LANDSMANAGEMENT, 2017. Volume 5, Number 2.
Green, J.F.N., Obituary: Albert Ernest Kitson. Geological Society Quarterly Journal (Geological Society), 1938. 94.
Henckel, J., et al., Lake victoria goldfields. Episodes Journal of International Geoscience, 2016. 39(2): p. 135-154.
Chumba, T., Elias K. , Environmental effects of Artisanal Gold Mining at abandoned Rosterman Mine and its surrounding, Kakamega County, Kenya. 2013.
Hasan, A.B., et al., Enrichment factor and geo-accumulation index of trace metals in sediments of the ship breaking area of Sitakund Upazilla (Bhatiary–Kumira), Chittagong, Bangladesh. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2013. 125: p. 130-137.
Helz., S.A.S.a.G.R., Regional Geochemistry of Trace Elements in Chesapeake Bay Sediments. Environ Geol 1981. 3: p. 315-323.
Winchester, D.R.L.a.J.W., A standard crustal aerosol as a reference for elemental enrichment factors. Atmospheric Enuirunmenr 1979. Vol. 13,: p. 925-930.
Odukoya, A.M., et al., Assessment of bioaccessibility and health risk of mercury within soil of artisanal gold mine sites, Niger, North-central part of Nigeria. Environ Geochem Health, 2022. 44(3): p. 893-909.
Muller, G., Index of geoaccumulation in sediments of the Rhine River. Geojournal, 1969. 2: p. 108-118.
Majhi, A. and S.K. Biswal, Application of HPI (heavy metal pollution index) and correlation coefficient for the assessment of ground water quality near ash ponds of thermal power plants. International Journal of Science Engineering and Advance Technology, 2016. 4(8): p. 395-405.
Rizwan Reza, G.S.a.G.S., Application of heavy metal pollution index for ground water quality assessment in angul district of orissa, india.pdf. International Journal of Environmental Sciences 2019. Vol. 5 ( 1 ).
Moldovan, A., et al., Metal contents and pollution indices assessment of surface water, soil, and sediment from the Arieș River Basin Mining Area, Romania. Sustainability, 2022. 14(13): p. 8024.
Korzeniowska, J. and P. Krąż, Heavy Metals Content in the Soils of the Tatra National Park Near Lake Morskie Oko and Kasprowy Wierch—A Case Study (Tatra Mts, Central Europe). Minerals, 2020. 10(12): p. 1120.
Taylor, S.R., Abundance of chemical elements in the continental crust: a new table. Geochimica et cosmochimica acta, 1964. 28(8): p. 1273-1285.
Fagbenro, A.A., et al., Assessment of heavy metal pollution in soil samples from a gold mining area in Osun State, Nigeria using proton-induced X-ray emission. Scientific African, 2021. 14.
Organization, W.H., Report of the WHO/FAO/OIE joint consultation on emerging zoonotic diseases. 2004, World Health Organization.
Tabelin, C.B., et al., Solid-phase partitioning and release-retention mechanisms of copper, lead, zinc and arsenic in soils impacted by artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) activities. Chemosphere, 2020. 260: p. 127574.
Palumbo-Roe, B., et al., Reconnaissance study of groundwater quality in the artisanal gold mining districts of Migori County, Kenya. 2021.
Miller, J.D., et al., Geophagic earths consumed by women in w estern K enya contain dangerous levels of lead, arsenic, and iron. American Journal of Human Biology, 2018. 30(4): p. e23130.
Faye, C.I., et al., Geological, geophysical and surface geochemical guides for gold exploration in the Falémé Volcanic Belt, West African Craton, Senegal. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2023. 245: p. 107145.
Niane, B., et al., Impact of recent artisanal small-scale gold mining in Senegal: Mercury and methylmercury contamination of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Science of the Total Environment, 2019. 669: p. 185-193.
Diallo, A.D., et al., METAL TRACE ELEMENTS IN SOILS OF THE AREA M'POURIÉ–MAURITANIA. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2014. 9(3): p. 261-271.
El Mahmoud-Hamed, M.S., et al., Distribution and health risk assessment of cadmium, lead, and mercury in freshwater fish from the right bank of Senegal River in Mauritania. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2019. 191: p. 1-13.
Macdonald, K., M. Lund, and M. Blanchette. Impacts of artisanal small-scale gold mining on water quality of a tropical river (Surow River, Ghana). in 10th International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage & IMWA Annual Conference. 2015.
Gyekye, K., P. Owusu, and A. Ofori, Gold Mining Effects on Water Quality in Domenase and Nkotumso along River Offin, Upper Denkyira West District. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 2023. 31(2): p. 43-56.
Turekian, K.K. and K.H. Wedepohl, Distribution of the elements in some major units of the earth's crust. Geological society of America bulletin, 1961. 72(2): p. 175-192.
Bulmer, F., H. Rothwell, and E. Frankish, Industrial cadmium poisoning: a report of fifteen gases, including two deaths. Canadian Public Health Journal, 1938. 29(1): p. 19-26.
Friberg, L.T., et al., Cadmium and health: A toxicological and epidemiological appraisal: Volume 2: Effects and response. Vol. 1. 2019: CRC press.
Kubier, A., R.T. Wilkin, and T. Pichler, Cadmium in soils and groundwater: a review. Applied Geochemistry, 2019. 108: p. 104388.
Basir, et al., Contamination Level in Geo-Accumulation Index of River Sediments at Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Area in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022. 19(10).
Usman, U., Y. Suleiman, and M. Yunusa, Environmental Effect of Artisanal and Small Scale Mining Activities on Water Quality in Figurara Local Government Area, Niger State, Nigeria. 2019.
Alharbi, T. and A.S. El-Sorogy, Spatial distribution and risk assessment of heavy metals pollution in soils of marine origin in central Saudi Arabia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2021. 170: p. 112605.
Amoakwah, E., et al., Assessment of heavy metal pollution of soil-water-vegetative ecosystems associated with artisanal gold mining. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal, 2020. 29(7): p. 788-803.
Persaud, A.W., et al., Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Senegal: Livelihoods, Customary Authority, and Formalization. Society & Natural Resources, 2017. 30(8): p. 980-993.
Ajith, M.M. and A.K. Ghosh, Economic and social challenges faced by injured artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Kenya. Safety Science, 2019. 118: p. 841-852.
Mitchell, C., B. Palumbo-Roe, and T. Bide, Artisanal & small-scale gold mining research field work, Migori County, Kenya. 2020.
Olujimi, O.O., et al., Heavy metals speciation and human health risk assessment at an illegal gold mining site in Igun, Osun State, Nigeria. Journal of Health Pollution, 2015. 5(8): p. 19-32.
Rakete, S., et al., Biomonitoring of arsenic, cadmium and lead in two artisanal and small-scale gold mining areas in Zimbabwe. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2022. 29(3): p. 4762-4768.
Thiombane, M., et al., A new hazard assessment workflow to assess soil contamination from large and artisanal scale gold mining. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2023.
Ako, O.U.S., Oke S. A., Adamu I. A., Ali S. E., Mamodu A., Ibrahim A. T., Environmental Impact of Artisanal Gold Mining in Luku, Minna, Niger State, North Central Nigeria. Journal of Geosciences and Geomatics, 2014. Vol. 2, No. 1.
Ogola, J.S., W.V. Mitullah, and M.A. Omulo, Impact of Gold Mining on the Environment and Human Health: A Case Study in the Migori Gold Belt, Kenya. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2002. 24(2): p. 141-157.
Kaninga, et al., mine tailings in an African tropical environment—mechanisms for the bioavailability of heavy metals in soils. Environmental geochemistry and health, 2020. 42: p. 1069-1094.
Okereafor, U., et al., Toxic Metal Implications on Agricultural Soils, Plants, Animals, Aquatic life and Human Health. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020. 17(7).
Mehta, N., et al., Incorporating oral bioaccessibility into human health risk assessment due to potentially toxic elements in extractive waste and contaminated soils from an abandoned mine site. Chemosphere, 2020. 255: p. 126927.
Kinimo, K.C., et al., Distribution trends and ecological risks of arsenic and trace metals in wetland sediments around gold mining activities in central-southern and southeastern Côte d'Ivoire. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2018. 190: p. 265-280.
Cuya, A., et al., Socio-environmental perceptions and barriers to conservation engagement among artisanal small-scale gold mining communities in Southeastern Peru. Global ecology and conservation, 2021. 31: p. e01816.
Seccatore, J., et al., An estimation of the artisanal small-scale production of gold in the world. Sci Total Environ, 2014. 496: p. 662-667.
Chemicals, Summary of supply, trade and demand information on mercury. Report prepared by Concorde East/West Sprl in response to UNEP Governing Council decision, 2006. 23(9).
Wawire, R.N., Artisanal Gold Mining and Its Implications on Adjacent Land Uses: a Case of Rosterman and Ikolomani Sites, Kakamega County, Kenya. 2023, University of Nairobi.
Ngom, N.M., et al., Mapping Artisanal and Small‐Scale Gold Mining in Senegal Using Sentinel 2 Data. GeoHealth, 2020. 4(12).
Niane, et al., Effect of recent artisanal small-scale gold mining on the contamination of surface river sediment: Case of Gambia River, Kedougou region, southeastern Senegal. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2014. 144: p. 517-527.
Zoch, G.L., Examining the Effects of Artisanal, Small-scale Gold Mining on Livelihood Assets in Kedougou, Senegal. 2019.
Ondayo, M.A., et al., Artisanal gold mining in Kakamega and Vihiga counties, Kenya: potential human exposure and health risk. Environ Geochem Health, 2023.
Igbayiloye, O.B. and D. Bradlow, An assessment of the regulatory legal and institutional framework of the mining industry in South Africa and Kenya for effective human rights protection: Lessons for other countries. African Human Rights Law Journal, 2021. 21(1): p. 363-388.
Laporte, B., C. De Quatrebarbes, and Y. Bouterige, Mining taxation in Africa: The gold mining industry in 14 countries from 1980 to 2015. 2017.
Landrigan, P.J., et al., The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The lancet, 2018. 391(10119): p. 462-512.
Myers, S.S., Planetary health: protecting human health on a rapidly changing planet. The Lancet, 2017. 390(10114): p. 2860-2868.
Tech, E.T., Determination of some heavy metals in wastewater and sediment of artisanal gold local mining site of Abare Area in Nigeria. J. Environ. Treat. Tech, 2013. 1(3): p. 174-182.
Plumlee, G.S. and S.A. Morman, Mine Wastes and Human Health. Elements, 2011. 7(6): p. 399-404.
Godwill Azeh Engwa, P.U.F., Friday Nweke Nwalo and a.M.N. Unachukwu, Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans. Intech Open, 2019.
Roca-Perez, L., et al., Potentially harmful elements pollute soil and vegetation around the Atrevida mine (Tarragona, NE Spain). Environ Geochem Health, 2023.
Mungai, et al., Occurrences and toxicological risk assessment of eight heavy metals in agricultural soils from Kenya, Eastern Africa. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2016. 23(18): p. 18533-41.
Ara, A. and J.A. Usmani, Lead toxicity: a review. Interdisciplinary toxicology, 2015. 8(2): p. 55-64.
Lu, N., Investigation of Lead and Cadmium Contamination in Mine Soil and Metal Accumulation in Selected Plants Growing in a Gold Mining Area. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 2019. 17(5).
Gidlow and David, Lead toxicity. Occupational medicine, 2015. 65(5): p. 348-356.
Geng, N., et al., Bioaccumulation of potentially toxic elements by submerged plants and biofilms: a critical review. Environment international, 2019. 131: p. 105015.
Li, et al., In vitro lung and gastrointestinal bioaccessibility of potentially toxic metals in Pb-contaminated alkaline urban soil: The role of particle size fractions. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2020. 190: p. 110151.
Whitmee, S., et al., Safeguarding human health in the Anthropocene epoch: report of The Rockefeller Foundation–Lancet Commission on planetary health. The lancet, 2015. 386(10007): p. 1973-2028.
Adegbe Mamodu, I.T.O., Simon Samchi Apollos, OrjiChukwuma N. Jacinta1, Waziri H. Salome, Abubakar Abduljalilu Enesi, Analyzing the environmental impacts and potential health challenges resulting from artisanal gold mining in Shango area ofMinna, NorthCentral, Nigeria. JOURNAL OF DEGRADED ANDMINING LANDSMANAGEMENT, 2017. Volume 5, Number 2.
Green, J.F.N., Obituary: Albert Ernest Kitson. Geological Society Quarterly Journal (Geological Society), 1938. 94.
Henckel, J., et al., Lake victoria goldfields. Episodes Journal of International Geoscience, 2016. 39(2): p. 135-154.
Chumba, T., Elias K. , Environmental effects of Artisanal Gold Mining at abandoned Rosterman Mine and its surrounding, Kakamega County, Kenya. 2013.
Hasan, A.B., et al., Enrichment factor and geo-accumulation index of trace metals in sediments of the ship breaking area of Sitakund Upazilla (Bhatiary–Kumira), Chittagong, Bangladesh. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2013. 125: p. 130-137.
Helz., S.A.S.a.G.R., Regional Geochemistry of Trace Elements in Chesapeake Bay Sediments. Environ Geol 1981. 3: p. 315-323.
Winchester, D.R.L.a.J.W., A standard crustal aerosol as a reference for elemental enrichment factors. Atmospheric Enuirunmenr 1979. Vol. 13,: p. 925-930.
Odukoya, A.M., et al., Assessment of bioaccessibility and health risk of mercury within soil of artisanal gold mine sites, Niger, North-central part of Nigeria. Environ Geochem Health, 2022. 44(3): p. 893-909.
Muller, G., Index of geoaccumulation in sediments of the Rhine River. Geojournal, 1969. 2: p. 108-118.
Majhi, A. and S.K. Biswal, Application of HPI (heavy metal pollution index) and correlation coefficient for the assessment of ground water quality near ash ponds of thermal power plants. International Journal of Science Engineering and Advance Technology, 2016. 4(8): p. 395-405.
Rizwan Reza, G.S.a.G.S., Application of heavy metal pollution index for ground water quality assessment in angul district of orissa, india.pdf. International Journal of Environmental Sciences 2019. Vol. 5 ( 1 ).
Moldovan, A., et al., Metal contents and pollution indices assessment of surface water, soil, and sediment from the Arieș River Basin Mining Area, Romania. Sustainability, 2022. 14(13): p. 8024.
Korzeniowska, J. and P. Krąż, Heavy Metals Content in the Soils of the Tatra National Park Near Lake Morskie Oko and Kasprowy Wierch—A Case Study (Tatra Mts, Central Europe). Minerals, 2020. 10(12): p. 1120.
Taylor, S.R., Abundance of chemical elements in the continental crust: a new table. Geochimica et cosmochimica acta, 1964. 28(8): p. 1273-1285.
Fagbenro, A.A., et al., Assessment of heavy metal pollution in soil samples from a gold mining area in Osun State, Nigeria using proton-induced X-ray emission. Scientific African, 2021. 14.
Organization, W.H., Report of the WHO/FAO/OIE joint consultation on emerging zoonotic diseases. 2004, World Health Organization.
Tabelin, C.B., et al., Solid-phase partitioning and release-retention mechanisms of copper, lead, zinc and arsenic in soils impacted by artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) activities. Chemosphere, 2020. 260: p. 127574.
Palumbo-Roe, B., et al., Reconnaissance study of groundwater quality in the artisanal gold mining districts of Migori County, Kenya. 2021.
Miller, J.D., et al., Geophagic earths consumed by women in w estern K enya contain dangerous levels of lead, arsenic, and iron. American Journal of Human Biology, 2018. 30(4): p. e23130.
Faye, C.I., et al., Geological, geophysical and surface geochemical guides for gold exploration in the Falémé Volcanic Belt, West African Craton, Senegal. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 2023. 245: p. 107145.
Niane, B., et al., Impact of recent artisanal small-scale gold mining in Senegal: Mercury and methylmercury contamination of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Science of the Total Environment, 2019. 669: p. 185-193.
Diallo, A.D., et al., METAL TRACE ELEMENTS IN SOILS OF THE AREA M'POURIÉ–MAURITANIA. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2014. 9(3): p. 261-271.
El Mahmoud-Hamed, M.S., et al., Distribution and health risk assessment of cadmium, lead, and mercury in freshwater fish from the right bank of Senegal River in Mauritania. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2019. 191: p. 1-13.
Macdonald, K., M. Lund, and M. Blanchette. Impacts of artisanal small-scale gold mining on water quality of a tropical river (Surow River, Ghana). in 10th International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage & IMWA Annual Conference. 2015.
Gyekye, K., P. Owusu, and A. Ofori, Gold Mining Effects on Water Quality in Domenase and Nkotumso along River Offin, Upper Denkyira West District. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 2023. 31(2): p. 43-56.
Turekian, K.K. and K.H. Wedepohl, Distribution of the elements in some major units of the earth's crust. Geological society of America bulletin, 1961. 72(2): p. 175-192.
Bulmer, F., H. Rothwell, and E. Frankish, Industrial cadmium poisoning: a report of fifteen gases, including two deaths. Canadian Public Health Journal, 1938. 29(1): p. 19-26.
Friberg, L.T., et al., Cadmium and health: A toxicological and epidemiological appraisal: Volume 2: Effects and response. Vol. 1. 2019: CRC press.
Kubier, A., R.T. Wilkin, and T. Pichler, Cadmium in soils and groundwater: a review. Applied Geochemistry, 2019. 108: p. 104388.
Basir, et al., Contamination Level in Geo-Accumulation Index of River Sediments at Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Area in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022. 19(10).
Usman, U., Y. Suleiman, and M. Yunusa, Environmental Effect of Artisanal and Small Scale Mining Activities on Water Quality in Figurara Local Government Area, Niger State, Nigeria. 2019.
Alharbi, T. and A.S. El-Sorogy, Spatial distribution and risk assessment of heavy metals pollution in soils of marine origin in central Saudi Arabia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2021. 170: p. 112605.
Amoakwah, E., et al., Assessment of heavy metal pollution of soil-water-vegetative ecosystems associated with artisanal gold mining. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal, 2020. 29(7): p. 788-803.
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